This course will provide students with the foundational knowledge to become earth science literate, understanding Earth's influence on humans and human influence on the Earth. Students will learn to think like a geoscientist by adopting four ways of thinking that take into account a systems approach, a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and field thinking. Systematically learning about rocks, geological time, natural resources, natural hazards, and water in this course will prepare students to address many challenges currently facing society and to identify future potential opportunities.
Antirequisites
Not completed nor concurrently enrolled in any of the following:
EARTH 122Introductory Environmental Sciences0.50 units
This course presents a broad overview of earth system processes and their influence on humans. Course emphasis is placed on anthropogenic impacts on natural systems, the impacts of geologic, biologic, and atmospheric processes on humans, and the effects of human activities on the environment. Course topics include sustainable development and the availability and use of natural resources, principles of ecology and environmental science, biogeochemical cycles, climate and climate change, soils and food supply, energy systems, surface water and groundwater, waste generation and management, pollution, and catastrophic natural processes.
Antirequisites
Not completed nor concurrently enrolled in any of the following:
ENVS195 - Introduction to Environmental Studies (0.50)
This course is intended to provide students with a practical overview of the hydrologic cycle and all of the interesting ways water flows and interacts with its environment, both surface and subsurface. The material is both qualitative and quantitative in nature and focuses on the circulation of water through the atmosphere, soil, groundwater aquifers, as well as looking at both the global fresh and marine water systems. Emphasis is placed on the physical aspects of hydrology, and the geologic and environmental factors that control the occurrence and cycling of water on Earth, as well as the impacts caused by population growth, contamination, urbanization or land use management, and climate change.
Origin, abundance, and geochemistry of elements. Introduction to environmental isotope geochemistry and radiometric dating. Basic aqueous geochemistry: pH, carbonate equilibrium, and common ions in natural waters.
This course consists of field exercises and lectures designed to provide students with practical hands-on experience conducting a variety of hydrological monitoring techniques. Emphasis will be placed on the collection, analysis, and interpretation of field measurements. Field exercises will cover groundwater, surface water, meteorological, and water quality.
This course provides a systematic study of the physical and chemical properties of the major rock-forming silicate minerals. Study of mineral chemistry, the internal geometry of crystalline solids and the interrelationship of crystal structure to the physical and chemical properties of minerals. Laboratory work focuses on observing and evaluating the physical properties of minerals and rocks in hand sample in order to identity them. This course includes a weekend field trip to Bancroft, Ontario.
This course provides an introduction to the petrogenesis of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Overview of textural, mineralogical, and chemical classification schemes for rocks. Introduction to silicate phase equilibria and the use of mineral stability diagrams to understand petrogenetic processes. Major relationships between tectonic setting and rock types. Laboratory work focuses on using a transmitted light microscope to study the optic properties of minerals in order to identify them as well as observe rock textures and interpret geological histories.
EARTH 235Stratigraphic Approaches to Understanding Earth's History0.50 units
An introduction to stratigraphic principles and methods used in deciphering geological history. Techniques of collecting surface and subsurface geologic data and representation of stratigraphic data. Procedures applicable to the classification and nomenclature of stratigraphic units using the North American Stratigraphic Code. The development of stratigraphic sequences as controlled by global and regional tectonics and sea level fluctuations. Interrelating aspects of Earth's physical, chemical, and biological history. Examples are drawn primarily from Canadian geology. Laboratory work will include construction and interpretation of various types of learning media such as traditional maps, cross sections, new physical and digital models, as well as extended reality.
EARTH 238Introductory Structural Geology0.50 units
Concepts of stress and strain; elementary rock mechanics; description and classification of folds, faults, foliations, lineations and joints; use of primary structures; introduction to geometrical analysis. Labs will emphasize geometrical problems, including geological maps and cross sections, and stereographic projection.
EARTH 260Introductory Applied Geophysics0.50 units
Applied geophysics provides geoscientists with a wide-range of non-invasive methods for characterizing the Earth's interior. This course is an introduction to the physical principles underlying field acquisition, processing, and data interpretation for commonly used applied geophysical techniques (seismic, electrical, electromagnetic induction, gravity, and magnetic methods). This course is not only pertinent for geoscientists but also for engineers and others interested in learning how physics can be used to explore the Earth's interior or perform non-destructive testing.
The course will examine the physical causes and affects of natural disasters including landslides, snow avalanches, earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, flooding, subsidence, volcanic eruptions, and asteroid impacts. Illustrated by case histories, the course will analyze the factors that lead to disasters. The effect of climate change, human activity, and population growth on the magnitude and frequency of disasters will be explored. The course will introduce the basic principles of Geo-Risk management and its applications in natural hazards engineering, in the development of mitigation strategies and in the re-insurance industry.
EARTH 281Geological Impacts on Human Health0.50 units
The importance of geology to health. This includes examining the effects of volcanic gases and dust and other aerosols; tracing the sources and impacts of metals and other naturally occurring geological materials in the Earth's hydrosphere and crust; geology and the bioaccumulation of metals; and distinguishing natural versus anthropogenic processes on the geochemical distribution of toxic material in the near-surface environment.
EARTH 305Physical Science of Climate Change0.50 units
This course examines changes in the global climate system, including planetary energy balance, radiative forcing, role of greenhouse gases, and system response and feedback; carbon cycles; paleoclimate, natural and anthropogenic causes; observed and future climate change, implications for earth systems, climate tipping points; strategies including greenhouse gases emission reductions, carbon capture and storage, and geo-engineering options.
EARTH 321Introduction to Geomicrobiology0.50 units
This course will explore how microbial life influences geochemical cycles in natural environments and engineered systems. Emphasis will be on the interactions between microbial activity and environment geochemistry. Topics will include microbial life on early Earth, biomineralization, biosignature preservation, bioremediation, and geomicrobiological research methods.
This course examines the global fluxes and transformations of nutrient elements (C, N, P and Si) and metals along the aquatic continuum. Students explore both natural and anthropogenically-driven changes to the chemical composition of water that occur in the atmosphere, rivers, reservoirs, lakes, groundwater, estuaries and oceans. The content will be interdisciplinary and quantitative, with a strong focus on biogeochemical processes that influence the chemical composition and quality of water at different stages of the global water cycle; the content will also include aspects of microbiology, ecology, hydrology and geology. Students will be introduced to geochemical modelling tools used to interpret changes to water quality through the application of equilibrium thermodynamics.
EARTH 331Volcanology and Igneous Petrology0.50 units
Principles and theories of the origins of volcanic and plutonic igneous rocks. Topics include the physics and chemistry of magma; igneous hazards and implications; magmatic differentiation; and igneous tectonic associations. Laboratories focus on the identification, description, and classification of igneous rocks.
Principles and theories of metamorphic rock genesis. Topics include static and dynamic metamorphism, recrystallization, metamorphic facies, thermodynamic equilibrium, metasomatism, and metamorphic signatures of global tectonics. Laboratories focus on the description, classification, and interpretation of metamorphic rocks.
An introduction to sediment properties, sedimentation processes, and sedimentary deposits in a variety of depositional environments and climatic conditions. Processes affecting sediments after initial deposition, such as those involved in the transformation of sediments into sedimentary rocks are also examined. Laboratories will focus on the different methods to describe and interpret sediments and sedimentary rocks.
An overview of the origin of life, how it evolved and diversified, modern principles of paleontology with particular emphasis on analytical tools to interpret ancient life forms. Patterns, processes of evolution, and paleoecology of key groups of microfossils, invertebrates, plants, vertebrates, and their trace fossils.
EARTH 342Geomorphology and GIS Applications0.50 units
An introduction of geomorphology with emphasis on landscape-forming processes. Characteristics and development of various landforms (e.g. mountain belts, volcanoes, impact craters, and those created by erosion/deposition of rivers/glaciers) are introduced. Skills for interpreting landforms in air photos or satellite images (in Google Earth or ArcGIS) are practised in the lab work. Application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to Earth Sciences. Basic concepts of GIS and GIS applications in mineral exploration industry and in fieldwork are introduced. Laboratory work of GIS involves map construction and spatial analysis (e.g., landslide hazard assessment).
This course is designed to provide a broad introduction to coastal geomorphology by covering significant processes and landforms that are characteristic of sandy coastlines in both marine and lacustrine environments. In addition, this course will focus on the major threats to important coastal resources globally including climate change and anthropogenic impacts. Lectures, weekly readings, and assignments will introduce the basic theoretical background and direct application of modern research methodologies using opensource datasets and software.
This course explores approaches for interpreting environmental data to support water decisions using theoretical and computational techniques. These approaches focus on statistical methods, including descriptive statistics, probability, hypothesis testing, frequency and time series analyses, point patterns, and correlation and regression, and also include discussion of analytical and numerical approaches.
Study of the Earth as a system, with a focus on global climate history and dynamics, biogeochemical cycling, and the impacts of human activity. Critical analysis and synthesis are emphasized in the context of group presentations and discussions.
Field study in Sudbury and Whitefish Falls areas. Held for at least nine days at end of the winter term. Geological and geotechnical field techniques, map construction, and report writing.
Prerequisites
Must have completed the following:
EARTH235 - Stratigraphic Approaches to Understanding Earth's History (0.50)
The application of chemical thermodynamics to geochemical problems. Development of the three laws of thermodynamics; Gibbs free energy and equilibria constants. Introduction to various topics in aqueous geochemistry such as mineral equilibria, ion exchange, and redox equilibria. Laboratory session will involve various experiments related to mineral solubility, chemical kinetics, acid-base equilibria, and chemical modelling.
Stress and strain; deformational behaviour of rocks; origin of folds, foliations, lineations, joints and faults; geometrical and kinematic analysis; relationships of structures from the microscopic to the megascopic scale. Labs will include simple experiments, advanced geometrical problems and observation and measurement of microstructure and fabric.
The first term of a potential two-term supervised research project in which students prepare a research proposal and conduct research. Students will present their research proposal in an oral presentation and written report.
An optional second term of a two-term supervised research project in which students learn to gather and interpret data. Students will present their findings in a formal presentation and written thesis.
Prerequisites
Earned a minimum grade of 75% in each of the following:
Stress, strain, and strength in geomaterials. Origins of stress and stress measurement methods, including hydraulic fracture and strain relief. Rock Mechanics principles and design procedures in areas of mining, civil engineering, and petroleum engineering. Monitoring methods, including introduction to microseismic surveillance. Course includes laboratory and project work.
Review of basic concepts in engineering geology as applied to rock and soil, including material properties, variability in properties, external factors such as stress, and evaluation of design adequacy. Site investigation and characterization techniques used to define and characterize the properties of geological materials and their use in selected engineering geologic design and construction problems. Laboratory assignments will focus on the determination of physical properties and site assessment problems.
EARTH 439Flow and Transport Through Fractured Rocks0.50 units
Fractures are ubiquitous in geologic media and important in disciplines such as physical and contaminant hydrogeology, geotechnical engineering, civil and environmental engineering, and petroleum engineering among other areas. Despite the importance of fractures, its characterization and predictions of groundwater flow and contaminant transport are fraught with significant difficulties. Students are taught to deal with fractures in hydrogeology, to conceptualize them, and to build reliable models for predicting groundwater flow and contaminant transport.
An introduction to the major topics of Quaternary geology with an emphasis on 1) the framework of the Quaternary Period, 2) the regional glacial geology and the geologic processes pertaining to glacial environments, 3) the methods to study the past 2.6 million years (e.g., isotope stratigraphy, geochronology), 4) Glacial-interglacial cycles, 5) applications of Quaternary geology (e.g., mineral exploration, geohazards, climate change, and water resources).
Advanced concepts on wetland ecosystems in the context of regional and global earth systems processes such as carbon and nitrogen cycling and climate change, applications of wetland paleoecology, use of isotopes and other geochemical tools in wetland science, and wetland engineering in landscape rehabilitation and ecotechnology. Current issues in Canada and abroad will be examined.
EARTH 456Numerical Methods in Hydrogeology0.50 units
An introduction to the theory and practice of groundwater flow and contaminant transport modelling. Topics related to variably-saturated flow will focus on derivation of Richard's equation, a control volume finite difference discretization, assembly and solution of the flow equation, material balance error, truncation error analysis, stability and monotonicity. Topics related to contaminant transport will focus on derivation of the contaminant transport equation, a control volume finite difference discretization along with various spatial and temporal weighting schemes and their associated accuracy, monotonicity, and material balance error. Hands-on experience is provided using software applied to industry-standard variably-saturated flow and transport problems, with an emphasis on visualization and interpretation of results.
An introduction to physical hydrogeology, including Darcy's law, the groundwater flow equations for steady-state and transient conditions, applications to flow nets, aquifer testing, groundwater resources, and groundwater protection. The role of groundwater in the hydrologic cycle is explored with emphasis on natural groundwater flow systems and their influence on stream flow. Physical processes controlling groundwater contamination are introduced.
This course exposes students to a wide variety of field and laboratory techniques for collecting hydrogeologic data and to gain experience in interpreting the data. Advantages and limitations of various measurement and data reduction techniques for evaluating groundwater flow systems are demonstrated in a set of field exercises carried out at the groundwater demonstration facility located on the university North Campus. These exercises illustrate the complexity of natural systems and the need for good data collection and interpretation skills when characterizing such systems .
An introduction to the chemical side of hydrogeology with emphasis on groundwater quality and contaminants in the groundwater zone, the geochemical origin of major ions in natural groundwater, causes of hardness, groundwater age determination using isotopes, common causes of groundwater contamination; processes governing contaminant behaviour including dispersion, diffusion and adsorption, hydrogeologic aspects of site selection for waste disposal.
Near-surface geophysics is used to characterize the shallow subsurface for a wide-spectrum of applications. This application-oriented course covers current methodology in near-surface geophysics, including electrical, electromagnetic, ground penetrating radar, seismic refraction, and well-logging methods. Techniques for geophysical data acquisition and interpretation are studied and applied to field data. Examples of the application of geophysical techniques to archeological, forensics, geotechnical, glaciology, and hydrogeological problems are examined.
An introduction to the principles and theories of mineral deposit genesis. Basic technical, economic, legal, and ethical aspects of mineral exploration and responsible development of natural resources are also covered. Laboratories involve hand sample and ore petrology of suites from diverse deposits.
One or more trips that emphasize field observations. Specific trips may be organized to examine field aspects of any of the disciplines within earth sciences or geological engineering.
EARTH 611Sedimentology - Ancient Sediments0.50 units
Interpretation of ancient sedimentary rocks. Sedimentation and tectonics, basin evolution, continental margins. Ancient clastic and chemical suites, diagenetic indicators, evolution of sedimentary suites through time.
Weekly seminars will introduce current concepts in a variety of subject areas in the deposition and diagenesis of carbonate sediments. Laboratory exercises will involve study of Pleistocene and older carbonate rock suites from a selection of geologic settings. Several laboratories will be devoted to introduction of common analytical techniques such as cathodoluminescence and SEM.
The study of textural and structural features of deformed metamorphic rocks. A synthesis of micro- and mega-scopic techniques directed at elucidating sequences of deformation and crystallization. Quantitative methods in the study of deformed rocks. Elements of style and symmetry in tectonites.
a) Basic thermodynamics and activity-fugacity relationships. Chemical equilibria, ion association and complexing, oxidation-reduction reactions. Models for aqueous equilibria in high concentration solutions. b) Interaction of groundwater with porous media; mineral dissolution/precipitation reaction kinetics, ion exchange, surface ionization of oxides. c) Use of computer codes such as PHREEQE and GEOCHEM to simulate mass transfer in geochemical systems. Examining and modelling chemical evolution in groundwater flow systems.
EARTH 622Environmental Isotope Hydrology and Geochemistry0.50 units
This course explores the application of environmental isotopes (principally 2H, 13C, 15N, 18O,34S) as tracers of inorganic and organic processes and cycles in nature, with an emphasis on the use of isotope tracers in water and climate studies, including runoff generation analysis, isotope-mass balance studies, climatology and paleoclimatology, and in studies of biogeochemical cycling. Other topics are tailored to student interest and research focus across the broad spectrum of geological, hydrological and biological questions that can be addressed using isotope techniques. Note: Open to graduate students in physical and biological sciences, physical geography and engineering.
The theory and practical application of microanalytical techniques often used in the biogeosciences will be explored. Particular attention will be given to microscopy, X-ray, and spectroscopy techniques. The use of these techniques in the study of microbe-mineral-fluid interactions, and the impact of these interactions on the broader environment, will be explored. Implementing a multi-analytical approach to investigate topics in the biogeosciences will be practiced through research design.
Advanced numerical techniques and theory in quantifying the behavior of rocks and fluids at high temperatures and pressues. Application of experimental and natural data to the study of tectonic, metamorphic and igneous processes.
The global cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus , sulfur, silicon and iron, are intimately linked to the chemical composition of the atmosphere and ocean, earth's climate, global biological productivity and diversity, and the evolution of sedimentary rocks. This course focuses on the quantitative representation of the processes and mechanisms driving the global biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nutrient elements on both short (100-104 years) and long (>104 years) time scales. Attention will also be given to the perturbation of biogeochemical cycles by human activity. To explore the interactions between the processes, as well as between the elemental cycles themselves, we will use mass balance models. Each student will carry out an independent project based on an elemental cycle of his/her choice.
Principles of radioactive decay and geochronology. Applications of geochronology and isotopic tracing using the U-Th-Pb, Re-OS, Lu-Hf, Sm-Nd, Rb-Sr, and Ar-Ar Isotope systems, U-series disequilibrum, cosmogenic nuclides, and extinct radionuclides. Offered in alternate years.
EARTH 634Geomechanics of In Situ Processes0.50 units
Geomechanics of in situ methods of energy recovery for heavy oil and minerals. Thermoelasticity, hydraulic fracture geomechanics, multi-phase system compressibility, remote and direct monitoring methods.
Time dependent behaviour of rocks, Griffiths crack theory, failure criteria for rocks, in situ stresses and their origins, behaviour of discontinuous rock masses, introductions to analytic and numerical methods for rock mechanics. Case studies, term project.
An introduction to basic concepts on the morphology, geology, geochemistry, sediment-related processes, and paleoecology of lakes. The focus is on the lake/watershed system and processes of the water column and associated terrestrial processes.
Nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), silica (Si) and carbon (C) are vital to organisms, and play an essential role in our everyday life. Used in excess, they can also become a nuisance with unwanted effects on the environment. This course focuses on nutrients from a hydrological perspective, using a river basin based viewpoint. The course covers general nutrient cycles, then nutrient budgets in watersheds, and how to model nutrient fluxes in catchments, using different approaches. We will also discuss pollution history, using nutrients and metal pollution in river basins over the last centuries. This will enable students to understand challengers that might arise from a variety of issues, from pollution history to current practices. Individual student projects will be based on either a particular element or a particular model.
EARTH 644Global Problems of Quaternary Geology0.50 units
Selected topics with global perspective, such as the deep sea record, long terrestrial records, Quaternary time boundaries, dating methods, paleotemperature analyses, isostasy, and sea level changes.
This course examines the use of stratigraphic records from lakes to reconstruct environmental change. Topics include sediment coring techniques, radiometric dating methods, analysis of physical, geochemical and biological indicators, and case studies demonstrating applications to address scientific and management questions. Practical experience is gained from a lake sediment coring field trip and subsequent laboratory analyses. *eligible for MES.
The course will provide an introduction to Precambrian geology with a particular focus on Canadian Geology. Linking sedimentation, tectonics, petrology, geophysics and geochemistry and geochronology to an evolving earth. Differences and similarities between Precambrian and Phanerozoic earth will be discussed using evidence from the rock record and the results of numerical modelling.
EARTH 650Physical Processes in Groundwater Systems0.50 units
This course aims to deepen the student's understanding of physical processes occurring in natural groundwater systems. Flow and transport processes and their interrelationships with the characteristics of the porous medium are studied and the governing equations developed. Topics covered include the fundamental concepts of physical hydrogeology, flow in the saturated and unsaturated zones, flownet analysis, immiscible flow of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), contaminant transport in porous and fractured media, stochastic principles of transport in heterogeneous media, coupled nonlinear processes, and applications in groundwater contamination/remediation. Recommended: EARTH 456 (can be taken concurrently with EARTH 650).
This course covers advanced numerical modelling topics in groundwater flow and contaminant transport in the subsurface. Topics to be explored include two- and three-dimensional transport in groundwater systems, density/ heat-dependent flow/transport, flow in the vadose zone, immiscible flow of non-aqueous phase liquids, multiphase dissolution and mass transfer processes, transport of biodegrading or chemically interacting contaminants, transport in fractured systems, transport in the vapour phase. The focus is on the use of models to obtain insight into the complex coupled processes that control groundwater contamination and remediation problems. Students will work with their own as well as existing models.
This course will review the unifying concepts and mathematical models underlying the quantitative description of reactive transport systems. The focus will be on the coupling of biogeochemical reactions to transport processes in near-surface environments (ie., soils, sediments, tailings ponds, and shallow aquifer). Examples will range from simple "back of the envelope" mass balance calculations to advanced numerical simulations. Students will learn how to assemble the building blocks of a reactive transport model (RTM). Particular attention will be given to the formulation of biogeochemical reaction networks, the kinetics of abiotic and biotic redox processes, mixed kinetic-equilibrium models, parameter calibration, numerical errors and simulation scenarios. Some advanced topics, such as bioenergetics controls, genome-enabled RTMs and dual-porosity media will be covered as special topics.
Physical and chemical processes influencing contaminant behaviour in groundwater with emphasis on field approaches. Interpretation of process effects in the context of various causes of groundwater contamination such as those related to landfills, chemical spills, mining and agriculture. Field experiments and case studies. (EARTH 621 and EARTH 657 or equivalent are recommended).
EARTH 654Groundwater Research Management0.50 units
Advanced topics in the design and analysis of aquifer tests, behaviour of aquifer-aquitard systems, aquifer exploration, groundwater resource evaluation in undeveloped areas, artificial recharge, induced recharge, conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, effects of excessive groundwater withdrawals, role of analog and digital models in groundwater management.
This course is an enriched version of EARTH 456 for graduate students. It introduces the student to numerical modelling techniques in groundwater science, with an emphasis on a sound understanding of the fundamental principles as a basis for developing and using models in a research environment. Numerical techniques including finite difference, finite element, and particle tracking methods are studied and applied to the solution of problems in groundwater flow, aquifer mechanics, flownet generation, and advective-dispersive transport. Proper modelling approaches, error analysis, stability, discretization constraints, pitfalls, and model misuse are discussed. Students will be developing some of their own groundwater models, and will be obtaining hands-on experience with state-of-the-art interactive groundwater models in the PC laboratory. Prior experience with FORTRAN is essential. Recommended: MATH 111B or equivalent. Students without the required prerequisite may seek consent of the instructor.
Prerequisites
Complete all of the following
Must have completed the following:
EARTH650 - Physical Processes in Groundwater Systems (0.50)
EARTH 657Organic Contaminants in the Subsurface0.50 units
Fundamental processes governing the fate of organic contaminants in soil and aquifer systems. Emphasis on partitioning between phases (dissolution, sorption and volatilization) with applications. Students without the required prerequisite may seek consent of the instructor.
EARTH 658Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock0.50 units
An introduction to the physical hydrogeology of fractured rock. Topics will include a review of the structural geology of fractured rocks, development and validity of the cubic law, groundwater flow and contaminant transport in discrete fractures and fracture networks, hydraulic testing methods and the hydrogeology of low-permeability environments. Recommended: Differential Calculus.
This course builds on the fundamental principles of aqueous chemistry and water-rock interactions with emphasis on groundwater environments. Topics include the evolution of natural groundwater chemistry, chemical aspects of contaminant hydrogeology such as hydrocarbons, radioactive wastes, acid mine drainage and industrial and municipal waste disposal. Geochemical models are introduced and applied by students in a course project. Students without the required prerequisite may seek consent of the instructor.
A field-oriented course on current methodology in the general area of geotechnical or engineering geophysics as applied to environmental problems. Typical topics covered: well logging and time domain electromagnetic surveys for groundwater supply; magnetic and terrain conductivity surveys for waste materials; ground penetrating radar applications to stratigraphy and contamination; streaming potential surveys of dam leakage. Usually taught with EARTH 461.
A course dealing with the theory and applications of field techniques in hydrology. Physical, chemical, and isotopic methods are included with applications to groundwater and surface water hydrology. The course will consist of lectures, field activities, projects and assignments. All will be conducted over a 3-week time period at the end of the Winter term in April. Students without the required prerequisite may seek consent of the instructor.
A written research proposal, and a seminar and defence of the proposal to be given by all MSc students (thesis option) within two terms of entering this program.